{"id":2282,"date":"2019-04-06T19:09:12","date_gmt":"2019-04-06T23:09:12","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/creatureandcreator.ca\/?p=2282"},"modified":"2021-04-04T09:05:40","modified_gmt":"2021-04-04T13:05:40","slug":"stones-of-the-picts","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/creatureandcreator.ca\/?p=2282","title":{"rendered":"Stones of the Picts"},"content":{"rendered":"
\"image_pdf\"<\/a>\"image_print\"<\/a><\/div>\n

With my surname it is inevitable that I should become interested in the Picts, a people who lived in Scotland during the first millennium of the Common Era. They left behind many sculptured stones, which now stand in fields and churchyards in the Northeast part of Scotland. Together with the Scots, the Vikings and the Anglo-Saxons, they became the people of Scotland. <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

Origins\nof the Picts<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a>
Drumtroddan <\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n

The British Isles have been home to human beings for thousands of years. In the Neolithic Period, the inhabitants of Western Britain, Northern Britain and Ireland raised striking stone monuments, the most famous of which is Stonehenge<\/a>. Scotland has numerous stone-circles and standing stones, particularly in the West and North. The illustration at the right shows a Neolithic standing stone (about 3 meters high) at Drumtroddan in Galloway. Most Neolithic stones are plain, but occasionally they are marked with circular incisions or hollowed-out cups. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Recent archeological evidence has indicated a major\nchange in the people of Britain during the 3rd<\/sup> Millennium BCE. At\nthat time the original Neolithic inhabitants of the islands were largely\nreplaced by Bronze Age people from the continent who brought with them the\ntechnology of Bell-Beaker pots (Olalde et al., 2018). This migration to Britain\nwas part of the westward expansion of the Celtic peoples (Manco, 2015;\nCunliffe, 2018).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The beakers were molded by hand rather than on a wheel,\nand had a characteristic bell shape (Clarke, 1966). They were decorated\nhorizontally either by cord impressions or by incised patterns. Typical pots\nhad a diameter of about 10 cm and were used for drinking. Larger pots could be used\nfor storage or as funeral urns. Some pots were used in the smelting of metals. The\nbell-beaker technology began in central Europe but there was much interchange\nof both pots and potters among the different peoples and regions of Europe\n(Salanova et al., 2016). The illustration shows a Spanish pot on the left and a\nScottish pot on the right:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a>
Bell-Beakers<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n

The people who brought the beakers from the continent to\nBritain likely spoke an Indo-European Proto-Celtic language. This then differentiated\ninto two main branches \u2013 Goedelic in Ireland (and later in Western Scotland)\nand Brythonic in Britain. Goedelic developed into Irish, Manx and Scottish\nGaelic; Brythonic developed into Brittonic, Cornish, Welsh and Pictish. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Celts thrived on the British Isles until the\nRomans came. Julius Caesar made his first forays into Britain in 55 BCE, and\nRoman legions subsequently controlled much of Southern Britain. Boudicca led an\nuprising of the Britons in 60 CE, but this was soon put down. Gnaeus Julius\nAgricola, governor of the Roman Province of Britannia from 77 to 85 CE, expanded\nthe area of Roman control northward. He led his soldiers against the inhabitants\nof what is now called Scotland, culminating in 83 CE in the Battle of Mons Graupius\n(somewhere in Aberdeenshire). The Romans considered themselves victorious.\nAgricola\u2019s nephew Tacitus (98 CE, pp 218-239) described the battle, attributing\nto the Pictish general Calgacus a rousing speech of defiance before the\nfighting: <\/p>\n\n\n\n

But today the uttermost parts of Britain are laid bare;\nthere are no other tribes to come; nothing but sea and cliffs and these more\ndeadly Romans, whose arrogance you shun in vain by obedience and self-restraint.\nHarriers of the world, now that earth fails their all-devastating hands, they\nprobe even the sea; if their enemy have wealth, they have greed; if he be poor,\nthey are ambitious; East nor West has glutted them; alone of mankind they\nbehold with the same passion of concupiscence waste alike and want. To plunder,\nbutcher, steal, these things they misname empire; they make a desolation and\nthey call it peace. \u2026 Here you have a general and an army; on the other side\nlies tribute, labour in the mines, and all the other pangs of slavery. You have\nit in your power to perpetuate your sufferings for ever or to avenge them\nto-day upon this field; therefore, before you go into action, think upon your ancestors\nand upon your children. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a>
Bridgeness Slab<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n

Tacitus described the outcome as a \u201cdecisive victory\u2019 for the Romans. However, Agricola returned to the south without leaving any occupying garrisons. The Romans later set up defensive walls to keep out the marauding highlanders: Hadrian\u2019s Wall (122 CE) at the level of the Firth of Solvay and a far less effective Antonine Wall (142 CE) at the level of the Firth of Forth. The sculptured Bridgeness slab in the Antonine Wall, showing a Roman horseman trampling on the Picts, may perhaps refer to Mons Graupius. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

The\nwarriors north of the walls were called Scots and Picts by the Romans. The term\nScots is of uncertain etymology. It was initially used to describe raiders from\nIreland but it later came to mean those Celts in the Western part of Scotland who\nwere related by language and trade to the Irish. The Picts were in the North\nEast. Their name, deriving from picti <\/em>(painted),\nrefers to their custom of painting or tattooing their bodies, a custom shared\nwith the Celts in the more Southern regions of Britain. We have little if any\nknowledge of the Pictish language, but it was likely more related to the\nBrittonic language than the Gaelic spoken by the Scots. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

When the Roman Empire crumbled in the 5th<\/sup>\nCentury CE, the province of Britannia was invaded by the Anglo-Saxons. The\nCelts were driven westward to Wales and Cornwall. Several new kingdoms were set\nup, most notably Mercia in the middle of England and Northumbria in the\nNortheast.  In the 9th<\/sup> Century\nthe Vikings attacked the British Isles, later settling and governing many\nnorthern regions of both Britain and Ireland. . <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Pictish\nHistory<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Most of what we know about the Picts comes from\nhistorians who were not Picts. Most of these wrote long after the events they\ndescribed. There are lists of Pictish kings (e.g., Clarkson, 2017, pp 207-208)\nbut these are difficult to follow. Pictish kings were often not succeeded by\ntheir sons. This may have been due to matrilineal succession (Woolf, 1988), but\nwas more likely caused by the kingship switching among the feuding clans. For\nthe purposes of this posting on the sculptured stones I can highlight three\nmain events in Pictish History after the Romans left.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

First was the coming of Christianity. In the 6th<\/sup> Century CE, St. Columba came from Ireland to Scotland. At that time, the Gaelic people in Western Scotland were loosely affiliated in the Kingdom of Dal Raita. In 563 CE, their king, Connall mac Comgaill, granted St. Columba the island of Iona, on which to build a monastery. Once the monastic community was established Columba moved to proselytize the Picts. In 565 CE, Columba visited the stronghold of Brude (or \u201cBridei\u201d), son of Maelchon. No one is clear as to its location, perhaps Craig Phadraig near Inverness. According to Adamnan\u2019s Life of Columba<\/a> (Book II:38)<\/p>\n\n\n\n

[W]hen the saint made his first journey to King Brude,\nit happened that the king, elated by the pride of royalty, acted haughtily, and\nwould not open his gates on the first arrival of the blessed man. When the man\nof God observed this, he approached the folding doors with his companions, and\nhaving first formed upon them the sign of the cross of our Lord, he then\nknocked at and laid his hand upon the gate, which instantly flew open of its\nown accord, the bolts having been driven back with great force. The saint and\nhis companions then passed through the gate thus speedily opened. And when the\nking learned what had occurred, he and his councillors were filled with alarm,\nand immediately setting out from the palace, he advanced to meet with due\nrespect the blessed man, whom he addressed in the most conciliating and\nrespectful language. And ever after from that day, so long as he lived, the\nking held this holy and reverend man in very great honour, as was due. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

The recorded lives of the saints are ornamented with miracles.\nThe opening of the door likely had some more natural cause, but the beginning\nof the conversion of the Picts can be dated to about this time. An 1898 mural\nin the Scottish National Portrait Gallery by William Hole shows Saint Columba\u2019s\nmission to the Picts:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a>
St Columba Preaching to Picts<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n

A second major event in Pictish history was the Battle of Dun Nechtain in 685 CE (Hudson, 2014, pp 74-80; Clarkson, 2017, pp 121-137). Under the leadership of King Bridei mac Bili (also known as Brude), the Picts defeated a Northumbrian army led by King Ecgfrith. According to Bede (8th<\/sup> Century, Book IV: 26<\/a>), this was a divine punishment for the Northumbrian incursions into Ireland: <\/p>\n\n\n\n

In the year of our Lord’s incarnation 684, Egfrid,\nking of the Northumbrians, sending Beort, his general, with an army, into\nIreland, miserably wasted that harmless nation, which had always been most\nfriendly to the English; insomuch that in their hostile rage they spared not\neven the churches or monasteries. Those islanders , to the utmost of their\npower, repelled force with force, and imploring the assistance of the Divine\nmercy, prayed long and fervently for vengeance and though such as curse cannot\npossess the kingdom of God, it is believed, that those who were justly cursed\non account of their impiety, did soon suffer the penalty of their guilt from\nthe avenging hand of God; for the very next year, that same king, rashly\nleading his army to ravage the province of the Picts, much against the advice\nof his friends, and particularly of Cuthbert, of blessed memory, who had been\nlately ordained his op (preacher), the enemy made show as if they fled, and the\nking was drawn into the straits of inaccessible mountains, and slain with the\ngreatest part of his forces, on the 20th of May, in the fortieth year of his\nage, and the fifteenth of his reign.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

After the battle, King Bridei had the body of Ecgfrith\ninterred in the monastery of Iona. Eight years later Bridei died and was\nhimself buried on Iona. The Battle of Dun Nechtain was not decided by the will\nof God, but it did represent the consolidation of Pictish power in Northeast\nScotland. These events also indicate the peaceful relations between the\nkingdoms of Dal Riata and Pictavia. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a>
Battle of Dun Nechtain<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n

The Battle of Dun Nechtain is recorded on the Pictish sculpted stone in the Aberlemno Churchyard. In the upper part of the sculpture, a long-haired Pictish warrior advances from the left while an Anglo-Saxons with helmet and nose-guard flees to the right. In the middle three Pictish footsoldiers confront a mounted Anglo-Saxon. The bottom of the stone shows two mounted warriors fighting and on the right is shown the outcome with a raven pecking at the dead body of the Anglo-Saxon. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

The final episode I shall consider was called Braflang\nSc\u00f3ine<\/em> or\nthe \u201cTreachery of Scone\u201d (Clarkson, 2017, pp 178-194). According to stories\nrecounted much later by such writers as Gerald of Wales writing in the late 12th<\/sup>\nCentury, Kenneth MacAlpin (Cin\u00e1ed mac Ailpin<\/em>)<\/em>, King of Dal Riata,\ninvited the Pictish lords to a banquet at Scone. Unbeknownst to them their\ntables were set on boards placed over pits. At a signal from MacAlpin, the\nScots<\/p>\n\n\n\n

noted their opportunity and drew out the bolts which\nheld up the boards; and the Picts fell into the hollows of the benches on which\nthey were sitting, in a strange trap up to the knees so that they could never\nget up; and the Scots immediately slaughtered them all, tumbled together\neverywhere and taken suddenly and unexpectedly, and fearing nothing of the sort\nfrom allies and confederates, men bound to them by benefits and companions in\ntheir wars. (from Gerald of Wales De\nInstructiones Principis,<\/em> translated in Clarkson, 2017, p 183).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kenneth MacAlpin (810-858) then became King of the\nPicts and the first king of a united Scotland (Alba<\/em>). The dates of his kingship are generally considered 843-858.\nThe lurid details of the Treachery of Scone do not appear to represent any\ndefinite event (Hudson, 1991). The massacre is a myth, but it serves to explain\nthe Scottish assimilation of the Picts. MacAlpin did indeed unify the Scottish\npeoples, and there is little historical mention of the Picts after about 900\nCE.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The history of Scotland thenceforth involved battles\nwith the Vikings to the North and with the English to the South, with Scotland\ncontinuing as an independent kingdom until the Act of Union of 1706 when\nScotland became a part of Great Britain.  \n<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Pictish\nSymbols<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Picts left no written history. Their sculptured\nstones form their main surviving record. On many of these stones are incised or\ncarved various symbols. Some of the symbols clearly represent animals or birds\nor fish. The others are mysterious. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Pictish stones have been classified by Allen and\nAnderson (1903) as: Class I, those with only symbols; Class II, those with\nChristian iconography (typically a cross) as well as symbols; and Class III\nthose with Christian iconography and no symbols. Both Class II and Class III\nstones often portray people, in scenes of daily life, in battles, or in stories\nfrom the Bible. . <\/p>\n\n\n\n

The following illustration shows six of the most\ncommon symbols found on Class I stones (Alcock, 1988, Forsyth, 1995; Jones,\n2003; Fraser, 2008, McHardy, 2015; Noble et al., 2018): <\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a>
Pictish Symbols<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n

No one knows what the symbols represent. Most interpreters\nrelate the symbols to physical objects or animals; others suggest a more\nabstract or spiritual correlation. The double disk could indicate the sun and\nits transition from winter to summer. In more abstract terms, it could indicate\na marriage, or the opposition of life and death. The crescent likely has some\nrelation to the moon. The Z-rod and V-rod might represent broken spears or\narrows. The notched rectangle might represent a chariot. The Pictish beast is\nclearly animate, but no one knows what animal it represents or whether the\nanimal is real or imaginary. My own preference is for a dolphin. The tuning\nfork might represent the tongs used in metal work. This would fit with the\nCeltic expertise in working bronze. Others have suggested that it shows a\nbroken sword. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Whether the symbols have further meaning is impossible\nto know. They might represent hieroglyphs like those in Egypt, or even a\nsyllabic alphabet. As such they could have been used to name clans or families.\nThe number of stones with symbols are far too few to allow easy linguistic\nanalysis. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

The stones might define territory or indicate a\nmeeting place. They do not appear to commemorate persons since most stones are\nunrelated to burials. An exception is the Picardy Stone (Myreton Farm, near\nInsch), which was located above what appeared to be an empty grave. The stone\nis 2 meters high and has three incised symbols: a double disk with a\nsuperimposed Z-Rod, a serpent with a Z-Rod and a mirror. The illustration below\ncompares a recent photograph (by Peter Richardson) with the engraving from\nStuart (1856):  <\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a>
Picardy Stone<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n

Class\nI Stones<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Perhaps the most famous of the Class I stones is located\nbeside the road in the village of Aberlemno. The stone is known as Aberlemno I\nor the Serpent Stone. The front side of the stone shows deeply incised Pictish\nsymbols: a serpent above a double disk with a Z-rod, and a mirror and\ncomb.  On the lower part of the back of\nthe stone are small cup marks, indicating that the stone was likely erected in\nNeolithic times and later carved by the Picts. The modern photograph from\nWikipedia is compared to the engraving in Stuart (1856):<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n

Another important Class I stone is the Craw Stane at\nRhynie, which has outlines of a salmon and a Pictish beast. In the illustration\na 2016 photograph by Allan Robertson is compared to Stuart\u2019s 1856 engraving:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a>
Craw Stane<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n

Class\nII Stones<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Class II stones differ from Class I stones in several\nways. First, they are carved on stones that have been roughly squared and\nfinished to form slabs. Second, the figures on these stones are carved in bas\nrelief rather than incised. Third, the carvings are more representational than\nsymbolic, often portraying people and animals. Fourth, they are ornamented with\nCeltic designs characteristic of Irish Art. Fifth, the stones include Christian\niconography, typically a cross, but also scenes from the Bible or the lives of\nthe Saints. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Celtic ornamentation was highly developed in Ireland\n(Laing & Laing, 1992, pp 138-196). The Class II Pictish stones were clearly\ncarved under the influence of Gaelic artists. However, there was also\ninterchange of ideas between the Celts (both Scots and Picts) and the\nAnglo-Saxons. Some of the major types of Celtic ornament are illustrated below\nwith patterns from Bain (1973):  <\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a>
Celtic Patterns<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n

The Maiden Stone near Inverurie is one of the simplest\nof the Class II stones. One side shows a set of Pictish symbols: from top to\nbottom a centaur, a notched rectangle with a superimposed Z-rod, a Pictish\nbeast, and a mirror and comb. The other side shows a human figure surrounded by\ntwo fish superimposed on a cross and a panel with Celtic spirals, now much\neroded. The name of the Cross comes from a local legend about a maiden who was\nduped by the devil, but saved by being turned into stone. The notch on the slab\nis from the failed clutch of the Devil as he tried to capture the maiden. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a>
Maiden Stone<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n

I have already considered the cross-slab in the Aberlemno\nChurchyard because of its representation of the Battle of Dan Nechtain. The\ncross side shows intricate Celtic ornamentation. The hole in the slab was\ndrilled much later than the carving probably to help move the stone. The\nillustration compares modern photographs with the engravings from Stuart\n(1956):<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a>
Aberlemno Churchyard Stone<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n
\"\"<\/a>
Hilton Cadboll Stone<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n

The Hilton Cadboll stone shows a beautifully carved hunting scene with a lady riding side-saddle. The cross side of the stone was erased and inscribed with a 17th<\/sup> century memorial. The stone was transferred to the National Museum of Scotland, and a replica by Barry Groves was erected at the original site. The illustration at the right shows a drawing by Mike Taylor (MacNamara, 1999) and below is a photograph by Stephanie McGucken of the replica. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"
Hilton Cadboll Replica<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n

The Nigg Stone is perhaps the most intricately decorated of all the Pictish stones. The cross side of the stone shows beautifully carved patterns of many kinds. Above the cross is a scene that is said to represent St Paul and St Andrew, each with a lion at their side, being brought a loaf of bread by a raven \u2013 food for their meditation. On the other side of the stone intricate Celtic designs surround a central hunting scene. Because of the harp, one of the figures may represent David. However the harp is as much a Celtic symbol as a Christian one. At the top of this side are the symbols of a bird and a Pictish beast. The stone was broken long ago and has recently been put back together. The illustration shows a photograph of the reconstruction and drawings by Mike Taylor (MacNamara, 1999). <\/p>\n\n\n\n

<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Class\nIII Stones<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

With a height of 7 meters, Sueno\u2019s Stone in Moray is\nthe tallest of the Pictish stones. The name refers to the Sweyn, a Danish king\nwho conquered Britain and became its king in1013 CE. However, there is no\nevidence for any association between Sweyn and the stone, which was likely\nerected over a century before his exploits. One side of the stone depicts a\ncross and other carvings that have been almost completely eroded. The better\npreserved side shows an amazing sequence of scenes that narrate a battle. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

The uppermost panel portrays mounted warriors arriving at the battle from the right. The second panel shows the fighting between foot-soldiers, with some of the warriors on the left side turning as if to flee. The upper line of the third panel shows the army of the right besieging a palisade. In the left middle of this panel is a pile of beheaded corpses. On the right the victorious soldiers appear to be blowing the bronze trumpets (carnyces) used by the Celts in battle. The fourth panel shows more corpses underneath what might be a bridge. The bottom strip of the stone seems to show prisoners tied up. No one is sure what battle is represented. Perhaps the Picts were fighting the Vikings; more likely they were fighting amongst themselves. The stone is now protected from the elements in a cage of armoured glass. The photographs in the following illustration are from the Undiscovered Scotland website<\/a> and the engravings are from Stuart (1856): <\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n

The Dupplin Cross differs from almost all of the other Pictish stones. The cross is not a slab upon which a cross has been carved, but a completely free-standing cross. Originally located on an open hillside it is now preserved in St Serf\u2019s Church in Dunning. The cross is beautifully carved with Celtic patterns and a variety of scenes with no apparent narrative relationship. The most striking carvings are the Pictish rider on the front and David playing his harp on the right side. The engravings are from Stuart (1856) and the photograph (2014) by Colin Gould: <\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a>
Dupplin Cross<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n

Legacy\nof the Picts<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Picts maintained their fierce independence for centuries, defending their territory from Romans, Anglo-Saxons and Vikings. They occur briefly in the records of those who fought with them, but they left no history of their own. They were a people as mysterious as the symbols they left on stones. Toward the end of the first millennium they became assimilated with the other peoples in the melting pot of Scotland. Their stones remain as an integral part of the Scottish landscape (photo <\/a>Cathy MacIver): <\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n\n

<\/p>\n\n\n\n

References<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Adamnan, Abbot of Hy (7th<\/sup> Century CE, Edited by W. Reeves, 1874). Life of Saint Columba, Founder of Hy. <\/em>Edinburgh: Edmonston and Douglas. Available at CELT<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Alcock, E. A. (1988). Pictish stones class I: Where\nand how? Scottish Archaeological Journal,<\/em>\n15, 1-21<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Allen, J. R. & Anderson, J. (1903). The early Christian monuments of Scotland.<\/em> Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland (Neill & Co.) Available at Archive.org: Part I and 2,<\/a> Part 3.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bain,\nG. (1973). Celtic art: The methods of construction<\/em>. New York: Dover\nPublications.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bede (8th<\/sup> Century, translation 1910). The Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation<\/em>. Available at Fordham University<\/a> or Christian Classics Ethereal Library<\/a>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Clarkson,\nT. J. (2008, revised 2017). The Picts: A history<\/em>. Edinburgh: Berlinn (John\nDonald).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Clarke, D. L. (1966). A tentative reclassification of\nBritish beaker pottery in the light of recent research. Palaeohistoria,<\/em> 12, 179-198. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Cunliffe,\nB. W. (2018). The ancient Celts<\/em>. 2nd<\/sup> Edition. Oxford:\nOxford University Press. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Forsyth, K. (1995). Some thoughts on Pictish symbols\nas a formal writing system. In Henderson, I. and Henry, D. (Eds) The worm, the germ and the thorn: Pictish\nand related studies presented to Isabel Henderson <\/em>(pp. 85-98). Brechin,\nAngus: Pinkfoot Press <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Fraser,\nI. (2008). The Pictish symbol stones of Scotland<\/em>. Edinburgh: Royal\nCommission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Harding,\nD. W. (2007). The archaeology of Celtic art<\/em>. London: Routledge.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Henderson, G., & Henderson, I. (2004). Art of the\nPicts: Sculpture and metalwork in early medieval Scotland<\/em>. New York, N.Y:\nThames & Hudson. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hudson,\nB. T. (1991). The conquest of the Picts in early Scottish literature. Scotia, 15<\/em>, 13-25.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hudson,\nB. T. (2014). The Picts<\/em>. Chichester,\nWest Sussex: John Wiley & Sons. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Jones,\nD. (2003). A wee guide to the Picts<\/em>.\nMusselburgh, Scotland: Goblinshead.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Laing,\nL. R., & Laing, J. (1992). Art of the Celts<\/em>. London: Thames and\nHudson. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

MacNamara,\nE., (1999). The Pictish stones of Easter\nRoss<\/em> (with illustrations by M. Taylor). Tain, Ross-shire: Tain and District\nMuseum Trust.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Manco,\nJ. (2015). Blood of the Celts: The new ancestral story<\/em>. London: Thames\nand Hudson.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

McHardy, S. (2015). Pagan\nsymbols of the Picts<\/em>. Edinburgh: Luath Press.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Noble, G., Goldberg, M., & Hamilton, D. (2018).\nThe development of the Pictish symbol system: Inscribing identity beyond the\nedges of Empire. Antiquity, 92<\/em>,\n1329-1348<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Olalde, I., Brace, S.,\nAllentoft, M.E., Armit, I.A., et al. (2018). The Beaker phenomenon and the\ngenomic transformation of northwest Europe. Nature,\n555<\/em>, 190-198. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Pearson,\nM. P., Chamberlain, A., Jay, M., Richards, M. et al. (2016). Beaker people in Britain: migration, mobility\nand diet. Antiquity, 90<\/em>, 620-637.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Salanova, L., Prieto\u2010Mart\u00ednez, M. P., Clop\u2010Garc\u00eda, X., Convertini, F., Lantes\u2010Su\u00e1rez, O., &Mart\u00ednez\u2010Cortizas, A. (2016). What are large\u2010scale Archaeometric\nprogrammes for? Bell beaker pottery and societies from the third millennium BC\nin Western Europe. Archaeometry<\/em>, 58,\n722-735. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Stuart, J. (1856, 1867). Sculptured Stones of Scotland<\/em>. Aberdeen: Spalding Club. Available at Archive.org: Volume I <\/a>and Volume II.<\/a> <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tacitus (circe 98 CE, translated by William Peterson, 1914). Dialogus, Agricola, Germania<\/em>. London: Heinemann. Available at Archive.org<\/a> <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Woolf, A. (1998). Pictish matriliny reconsidered. The Innes Review, 49<\/em> 147-167 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

With my surname it is inevitable that I should become interested in the Picts, a people who lived in Scotland during the first millennium of the Common Era. They left behind many sculptured stones, which now stand in fields and churchyards in the Northeast part<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":2277,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"iawp_total_views":471,"footnotes":""},"categories":[2,3,9,8],"tags":[375,373,374,365,370,368,371,372,364,366,369,367],"class_list":["post-2282","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-art","category-history","category-religion","category-sculpture","tag-agricola","tag-battle-of-dun-nechtain","tag-battle-of-mons-graupius","tag-bell-beakers","tag-bronze-age","tag-celts","tag-gaels","tag-kenneth-macalpin","tag-picts","tag-scotland","tag-sculptured-stones","tag-st-columba"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/creatureandcreator.ca\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2282","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/creatureandcreator.ca\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/creatureandcreator.ca\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/creatureandcreator.ca\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/creatureandcreator.ca\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=2282"}],"version-history":[{"count":14,"href":"https:\/\/creatureandcreator.ca\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2282\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3669,"href":"https:\/\/creatureandcreator.ca\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2282\/revisions\/3669"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/creatureandcreator.ca\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/media\/2277"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/creatureandcreator.ca\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=2282"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/creatureandcreator.ca\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=2282"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/creatureandcreator.ca\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=2282"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}